Scaffolding

Though exposure to nonfiction is an essential step in promoting nonfiction literacy, it is not enough. Combs (1998) drew a distinction and said “most of our middle schoolers really do know how to read,” but many do not know how to “read to learn” (p. 11). The fundamental purpose of nonfiction texts is to convey facts and information, and though students may be able to read the words in front of them, they struggle with interpreting or using this information. For this reason, scaffolding can be crucial to bringing nonfiction to life. Scaffolding is defined as "a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process" ("Scaffolding," 2014).

Combs (2004) argued that one size does not fit all and certain texts call for certain scaffolds. Combs (2004) identified two major categories for describing texts, interest and difficulty. These encompass two of the major reasons that a student will disengage from reading--a lack of interest or finding the text too difficult. However, with the correct type of scaffolding, these two obstacles can be circumvented.

There are four categories of texts to be considered in Combs’s (2004) model: high interest/low difficulty, high interest/high difficulty, low interest/low difficulty, and low interest/high difficulty. Figure 1 (below), taken from Combs (2004), shows how much scaffolding should be considered for each of these categories. The goal is to provide students with the appropriate amount of support. Too much, and students will feel burdened by having to complete tasks rather than to enjoy reading. Too little, and students may feel overwhelmed and discouraged and will give up the task altogether.

Regardless of the amount of scaffolding used, there are three logical points in the reading process at which scaffolding strategies can be employed.Combs (1998) described a basic scaffold as a series of techniques employed before, during, and after reading. She likened this to a musical piece, with each section building on the previous one (Combs, 1998).

Strategies used prior to reading should engage the students and set the expectations for the piece (Combs, 1998). Students should begin reading with a goal in mind, and a successful strategy will ask students to think about what and why they are reading. Combs (1998) emphasized that it is sometimes not enough to just get students thinking about a topic, especially if it is not immediately relevant or interesting to them. A KWL chart can be a great pre-reading strategy, but a KWL chart plus a reason for the W (“want to learn”) is even better. Maloch and Bomer (2013) made a similar assessment and pointed to studies that show that students are much more likely to be engaged if they are asked to work with nonfiction texts in an authentic way. By using a driving question or problem to frame a pre-reading task, teachers can engage students and bring enthusiasm to the reading process.

Strategies used during the reading process can be simple, such as creating a flowchart, or complex, such as writing discussion questions. Combs (1998) recommends using graphic organizers, as these can be easily adapted to various texts and needs. Beers and Probst developed a much-used "notice and note" system that gives students different strategies for engaging in close reading (Wineski, 2013). More complex texts will likely require more guided reading activities (Combs, 2004). Students will find these activities more relevant if they involve opportunities to work in partners or small groups to question, reflect on, and respond to what they have read (Combs, 2004). Some students may benefit from what Maloch and Bomer (2010) called “interactive read-alouds.” These occur when the teacher reads a text to the class and poses questions that are meant to promote open-ended discussion. These and other “during reading” strategies all aim to enhance student understanding of what they are reading as they read it.

The final type of scaffolding strategy is the “after reading” task. These tasks should promote higher-order thinking skills, and should be more complex that “complete the question” activities (Combs, 1998). Students should be working with the material in a real, tangible way, such as debating the pros and cons presented in a newspaper article. Combs (2004) suggested using these tasks as opportunities to promote problem or project-based learning. "After reading" tasks can be especially effective scaffolding tools if they tie all three tasks (before, during, after) together and give students a “big picture” of what they have read and why they have read it (Combs, 1998).

Ultimately, scaffolding aims to break down nonfiction into meaningful and manageable pieces. If a student has guidance and support throughout the reading of a text, he will be much more successful at comprehending the text. Ideally, as the student progresses, more and more texts will move from the “low interest/high difficulty” category to the “high interest/low difficulty” category.

References

Combs, D. (1998). Help! These middle schoolers can’t read their textbooks!. Kentucky Department of Education Professional Development Packet, 9-18. Combs, D. (2004). A framework for scaffolding content area reading strategies. Middle School Journal, 36(2), 13-20.

Maloch, B., & Bomer, R. (2013). Research and policy: Teaching about and with informational texts: What does research teach us?. Language Arts, 90(6), 441-450. "Scaffolding (2014). The glossary of education reform. Retrieved from http://edglossary.org/hidden-curriculum Wineski, S. (2013). Review: "Notice and Note: Strategies for Close Reading." Retrieved from http://www.middleweb.com/6994/close-reading-strategies/